Certification and Job Task Analysis:
Translator Knowledges, Skills and Abilities as a Way to Validate Translator Certification Examinations

© Geoffrey S. Koby

Lasted updated February 19, 2013

Appendix to an article submitted to www.trans-int.org

Note: The authors reserve the right to use the content of this webpage in other publications.

Detailed analysis of ATA categories vs. EMT categories, with relevant comments in the literature

The following tables follow the order of the EMT categories, showing how the individual ATA categories match against the EMT categories. This is followed by a chronological listing of relevant comments from the literature. Each of the major EMT categories is listed “in general” first, since many authors do not break down competences into the very specific categories of the EMT. Some comments appear under multiple headings.

1. Language competence

EMT – Language competence in general ATA – Able to read a source language and write in a target language of a language pair Not surprisingly, this competence elicited comments from many authors. However, despite the many calls for language proficiency in at least two languages, it is surprising that only Simon explicitly calls for study abroad, stating “…an institution also needs to ensure that students have an opportunity of gaining some experience—however brief—of actually using their foreign language in the country where it is spoken.” (1994: 74-75)
Wright et al. 1987	“Total understanding of the source language and the ability to interpret syntatical elements is the sine qua non for any translation assignment. Without this capability no individual should call himself a translator.” (116)
Bell 1991	“… the professional (technical) translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge; target language (TL) knowledge; text-type knowledge; source language (SL) knowledge; subject area (‘real-world’) knowledge; and contrastive knowledge.” (36, quoting Johnson and Whitelock 1987) “Add to this the decoding skills of reading and encoding skills of writing…” (36)
Hewson & Martin 1991	“(a) Acquired interlinguistic competence: no translation is possible without competence in at least two linguistic systems and a certain knowledge of the LCs [Language Cultures] associated with them. … The same correct strategy will yield vastly different results according to the extent of basic linguistic knowledge that has been brought into play. … The systematization of translation can only be validly undertaken if founded on some degree of bilingual proficiency.” (52) “It is often said that the TO [Translation Operator] should be ‘bilingual’, or at least highly competent in what is for him the foreign language. But we must examine this truism to see what it hides. Indeed, we work on the assumption that a ‘bilingual’ individual as such cannot exist, simply because any language-learning situation will preclude this possibility.” (116) “Perhaps the most obvious statement one can make about the TO is that he must be competent in two LCs. This means that, however he has acquired his languages, he must maintain and develop both a knowledge and a practice of two independently developing entities.” (134)
Snell-Hornby 1992	“…mastery of both source and target language…” (9)
Kaiser-Cooke 1994	“The knowledge required for the process of translation is conventionally broken down into linguistic knowledge or competence, subject knowledge, and that elusive creature, translatorial competence.” (137)
Neubert 1994	“Roughly, the three kinds of competence are the following: (1) language competence, (2) subject competence, (3) transfer competence.” (412)
Stolze 1994	“Übersetzungskompetenz … besteht also aus einer Verstehenskompetenz, einem Sinn fürs Wesentliche der Botschaft…” (387) Our translation: “Translation competence … thus consists of comprehension competence, a sense for what is important in the message, …”
Ostarhild 1994	“1. to test spoken and written fluency in English and Chinese within a contemporary context…” (53-54)
Simon 1994	“…the process of translating a text from one language to another clearly does require an adequate level of linguistic competence in the major foreign language and a high degree of sophistication in the translator’s mother tongue.” (74) “All of them should have bilingual skills of a high order and a ready capacity to move between the two languages and the two cultures. …graduates have a sensitive command of their mother tongue as well as a high degree of competence in the major foreign language.” (79)
Cao 1996	“(1) Translational Language Competence” (328) “As translation is a kind of linguistic activity, language competence is no doubt a prerequisite for a translator’s work (Snell-Homby 1992: 10). To be able to translate, a high level of proficiency in the receptive and productive skills in both languages is required.” (329-330) “Translational Language Competence will be taken to include (A) Organisational Competence in SL and TL, which consists of (a) Grammatical and (b) Textual Competence, and (B) Pragmatic Competence in SL and TL, which consists of (a) Illocutionary and (b) Sociolinguistic Competence. (See Figure 2.)” (330) “Thus the argument follows that one of the main criteria for translators working from or into their first language should be their actual level of proficiency, not the mere fact that they are working into a second/foreign language.” (337) “Therefore a high level of language competence in both the first and second language in the respective competence areas, equivalent to that of competent university educated language users is required of professional translators.” (337)
Shreve 1997	“I’d like to assume at the outset the existence of bilingualism…” (129)
Ivanova 1998	“…translation skill which is both in one sense a language skill insofar as it operates on linguistic knowledge and the products of this knowledge – texts;” (94) “…the task has complex language processing requirements involving selection, co-ordination and monitoring of information at different levels – orthographic, semantic, syntactic, discoursal – and from different language systems…” (95) Paraphrasing Deslisle 1992: “Linguistic competence = ability to understand STL and produce TLT” (93)
Vienne 1998	“The ability to understand the source language and produce acceptable target language expressions” (111)
Schäffner 1998	“Translation competence, then, involves an awareness of and conscious reflection on all the relevant factors for the production of a TT that appropriately fulfills its intended function. Such a competence requires more than a sound knowledge of the linguistic systems of L1 and L2. In addition, it involves at least knowledge of communicative and text-typological conventions in the source- and target-language cultures…” (125)
Malmkjær 1998	“It clearly involves competence in at least SL and TL.” (8)
MacKenzie 1998	“Even an excellent knowledge of two languages and cultures does not make a professional translator. The translator also needs knowledge of text types and communication strategies in the languages and cultures concerned, and must be able to make decisions about what is needed in a particular situation and how to produce it.” (15)
Neubert 2000	“Translation practice and hence translation teaching require a unique competence, perhaps a set of competences that comprise, of course, competence in the source and target languages. … Having said that translation involves variable tasks, any attempt at defining competence must take into account the sheer complexity of the demands that are made on the cognitive faculties and skills of the translator. Their specificity, however, amounts to nothing less than everything in particular.” (3)
PACTE 2000	“Communicative Competence in two languages can be defined in general terms as the system of underlying knowledge and skills necessary for linguistic communication. Following Canale (1983), we distinguish linguistic, discourse and socio-linguistic components. Of course, for translators, this competence should be separated into understanding in the SL and production in the TL.” (101)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“Full professional competence is normally achieved only by translators working into their language of habitual use.” (1)
PACTE 2003	“…there are two important aspects to be considered in relation to the linguistic sub-competence: the fact that the expert translator as a bilingual has the ability to change from one language to another, but also, that the translator is able to separate the two languages that are in contact.” (57)
MacKenzie 2004	“…the translator’s roles require not only linguistic-cultural skills…” (32) “…the translator needs knowledge of text types and of their uses in the respective cultures.” (34)
Razmjou 2004	“A good translator is someone who has a comprehensive knowledge of both source and target languages.”
Kaur & Singh 2005	“About 84% of the translators in this study were Malays, and they confirmed the fact that it is an advantage for them to be able to translate into their own mother tongue, because they know how the language ought to be written and how it should sound.”
Kelly 2005	“Communicative and textual competence in at least two languages and cultures. This area covers both active and passive skills in the two languages involved, together with awareness of textuality and discourse, and textual and discourse conventions in the cultures involved.” (32)
Hansen 2007	“Communicative competence -Linguistic competence -Pragmatic competence” (205) “Pragmatic competence is… an explicit knowledge of communicative structures and patterns, e.g. speech acts, speech norms and text types, and a knowledge of reception and production strategies and the way they are used.” (206)
Hurtado Albir 2007	“TC is seen as comprising five sub-competences (bilingual, extralinguistic, translation knowledge, instrumental and strategic) as well as some psychophysiological components.” (169-170) “In this model, bilingual subcompetence comprises the essentially operative knowledge necessary for communicating in the two languages: pragmatic, sociolinguistic, textual and lexical-grammatical knowledge.” (170)
Chodkiewicz 2012	“Language competence This was the highest rated competence in the survey (p. mean = 3.55, s. mean = 3.64)…” (47) “In fact, when measuring translation competence and its acquisition, the PACTE group (Orozco, M. and Hurtado Albir. A 2002, PACTE 2003) deliberately exclude language competence from their studies as it is not unique for translators; for the same reason Vienne (1998) took the radical step of leaving linguistic competence out of his list of core competences for translation. Despite this shift in translation studies, however, the translators who participated in the survey regarded language competence as the nexus of translation competence.” (48)

EMT – Mastery of the working languages (of at least level C1: ‘Competent use of language (Effective Operational Proficiency)’, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for languages). ATA – Able to read a source language and write in a target language of a language pair The EMT categories are more specialized here, and only the EMT specifies a particular level of mastery (which it seems to have gotten from studies performed on behalf of the Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers). Other authors are vague on the level.
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…candidates are advised to ensure … that their level of linguistic attainment in the source language is at least equivalent to a good Honours degree, and that they are familiar with the relevant cultural background.” (2) “…a high level of language competence in the source language and native speaker or equivalent ability in the written target language are essential. Without these, candidates’ chances of success will be limited.” (13)
PACTE 2003	“The bilingual sub-competence. Predominantly procedural knowledge needed to communicate in two languages. It includes the specific feature of interference control when alternating between the two languages. It is made up of pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual, grammatical and lexical knowledge in the two languages.” (58)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“Uit zowel de onderzoeken van de Lessius Hogeschool als van drs. R. van Deemter (zie bijlage 3) blijkt dat verregaande overeenstemming bestaat ten aanzien van het niveau van het Nederlands en de vreemde taal dat zowel tolken als vertalers dienen te beheersen. Het vereiste beheersingsniveau van deze competentie kan dit worden bepaald door gebruik te maken van Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). Het vereiste niveau kan worden bepaald op C1.” (45-46) Our translation: “Both the study by the Lessius Hogeschool and the one by R. van Deemter … show that broad consensus exists regarding the level of Dutch and foreign language that both interpreters and translators need to master. The required level of control of this competency may be determined by using Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). The required level can be specified as C1.”
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A translator must be very proficient in both the source and target languages. Mastery of the source language ensures that the meaning conveyed by the source text author is very clearly and accurately understood by the translator. Every aspect of it must be clearly interpreted by the translator. Mastery of the target language is even more important.”
Hansen 2007	“Linguistic competence comprises: - an implicit linguistic knowledge in mastering the language systems, the stylistic means, and the devices of the mother tongue and the foreign languages; and - an explicit knowledge of the grammatical and stylistic rules of the mother tongue and the foreign languages.” (206)

EMT – Knowing how to understand grammatical, lexical and idiomatic structures as well as the graphic and typographic conventions of language A and one’s other working languages (B, C) ATA – Vocabulary knowledge; Grammar knowledge; Idiomatic knowledge Both the EMT and the ATA categories beg the question of how a person could have excellent knowledge of the language in general in another category without having grammatical, lexical, and idiomatic knowledge. Nevertheless, this knowledge is considered important enough to rate separate mention by several authors.
Bell 1991	“What links these, and is therefore of prime importance in any objective consideration of translation, is the all-embracing linguistic knowledge on which all else depends… It seems indisputable that … the translator must know (a) how propositions are structured (semantic knowledge), (b) how clauses can be synthesized to carry propositional content and analysed to retrieve the content embedded in them (syntactic knowledge), and (c) how the clause can be realized as information-bearing text and the text decomposed into the clause (pragmatic knowledge).” (36-37) “1. Grammatical competence: knowledge of the rules of the code, including vocabulary and word-formation, pronunciation/spelling and sentence structure i.e. the knowledge and skills required to understand and express the literal meaning of utterances…” (41) “…the translator must possess linguistic competence in both languages and communicative competence in both cultures, consisting of: (1) knowledge of the rules of the code which govern usage and knowledge of and ability to utilize the conventions which constrain use. (2) knowledge of the options available for the expression of all three macrofunctions of language and knowledge of an ability to use the options available for making clauses count as speech acts in conformity with the community ground-rules for the production and interpretation of a range of communicative acts (i.e. discourse) in order to create, comprehend and use context-free TEXTS as the means of participation in context-sensitive (situated) DISCOURSE.” (42)
Simon 1994	“Their programme should have made them sensitive to … the contrastive features of grammatical and phonological structure, of register and intent and of the idiom and specialist vocabulary in the two languages which lie at the heart of their course.” (79)
Cao 1996	“Grammatical Competence refers to the mastery of the language code of the SL and TL at a high level, and this consists of intimate knowledge of syntax, lexis, and semantic rules which determine sentence formation and the meanings of sentences in both SL and TL.” (330)
Neubert 2000	“…no doubt, language competence is the sine qua non of translation and it is more than a commonplace to point out the extreme value of mother tongue knowledge and skill, often grossly underestimated by the translation student; also, alas by the practitioner, and last but not least, by the commissioner of a translation. …a near-perfect knowledge of the niceties of the grammatical and lexical systems of the source and target languages are basic ingredients of translation competence.” (7)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“Candidates are required to have an appropriate level of writing skills in their target language.” (1) “Candidates are expected to write in their target language at mother tongue level, reaching a high standard of accuracy.” (9)
PACTE 2003	“Grammatical-lexical knowledge is knowledge of the vocabulary, morphology, syntax and phonology/graphology.” (58)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“Brontekstbegrip De vertaler kan snel en vlot een algemene tekst binnen het justitiële domein inhoudelijk begrijpen en de inhoudelijke vertaalmoeilijkheden met betrekking tot die tekst anticiperen en inschatten.” (54) Our translation: “Source-text comprehension. The translator can quickly and easily grasp the content of a general text within the legal domain and anticipate and assess the content-related translation difficulties relating to the text.”
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A translated text is deemed weak if it is delivered in the target language poorly because the translator is not familiar with the grammar and nuances of the language. Thus, it is best if the target language is the translator’s dominant or native language, because only such highly proficient language users will have the intuitiveness for the language and will thus be able to deliver a better translation.”
Angelelli 2009	“T[ranslation] shows a masterful control of TL grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Very few or no errors.” (33)
Chodkiewicz 2012	“…knowing grammatical and lexical structures, and graphic conventions in your working languages and being able to reproduce them in another language (p. mean = 3.7, s. mean = 3.73).” (48)

EMT – Knowing how to use these same structures and conventions in A and B ATA – Usage trends knowledge; General writing skills Here again, the EMT category seems to be a distinction without a difference, since mastery of a language implies the ability to use a language. Still, this seems to relate to the idea of translation into L1 (theme) vs. L2 (version).
Wright et al. 1987	“Normal humans … had best stick to translation into their native tongue.” (122) “‘Made in Germany’ may be a mark of quality on an automobile, but it is the kiss of death for an English text.” (123)
Bell 1991	“Given the goal of linguistics to match the native speaker’s competence, an applied linguistic theory of translation should aim at matching the bilingual native speaker’s translation competence.” (37, quoting Raskin 1987)[1]
Lang 1994	“Professional translating standards require an impeccable level of competence in the target language. …it would seem to be highly desirable, if not essential, that any course in translating should be preceded by a ‘monolingual’ text processing course, designed specifically to improve the trainee translator’s mastery of his/her mother tongue.” (399)
Neubert 1994	“Or note the paramount importance played by the translator’s mother tongue, and in general the all too often underestimated relevance of target language knowledge for successful translation.” (419)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…the encoding must respect the norms of the target language, vis à vis sentence structure, terminology, cohesion of the text and fidelity to the author and his/her intention.” (15)
MacKenzie 2004	“…the student needs text composition skills. Basic skills include mastery of the rules of coherence and cohesion…” (34)
Razmjou 2004	“‘Writing’ skills, i.e. the ability to write smoothly and correctly in both source and target languages, are also important. Writing is in fact the main job of a translator. Students should become familiar with different styles of writing and techniques and principles of editing and punctuation in both source and target languages. Editing and punctuation improve the quality and readability of the translation (Razmjou, 2002).”
Kaur & Singh 2005	“…but he or she must be able to deliver the translation according to the rules, style, and grammar of the target language so that the translation does not sound awkward and unnatural.” “An effective translator must be aware that writing and translating involve similar features. … Like writing, translating too involves these stages—identification of the SL document, identification of intention, interpretation of specification and cursory reading and choice of TL text type and the other preparatory activities as in writing and original work.”
EMT – Developing sensitivity to changes in language and developments in languages (useful for exercising creativity) ATA – Slang usage knowledge; Usage trends knowledge
Stolze 1994		“…und auf einem metakognitiven Wissen als Sprachbewußtsein…”(387) Our translation: “…and on metacognitive knowledge as language consciousness…”
Wußler 1997		Kreativität [creativity] (quoting Arnold 1996, 62)
Neubert 2000		“Included is an awareness of the continual changes at work in the two languages…” (7)
Razmjou 2004		“…translation trainees should have a good ear for both source and target languages; i.e. they should be alert to pick up various expressions, idioms, and specific vocabulary and their uses, and store them in their minds to be used later.”
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005		“– Alertheid voor taal: voor het belang van grammatica, semantiek, uitspraak enzovoorts, voor de nauwkeurigheid van boodschap en bedoeling. – Alertheid voor de evolutie van taal, zowel in geschreven als gesproken vorm. – Alertheid en bereidheid veranderingen in taal bijvoorbeeld op het gebied van justitie, de maatschappij in het algemeen, slang, informele taal, enzovoorts te blijven volgen.” (43) Our translation: “– Alertness for language: for the importance of grammar, semantics, pronunciation, etc., for the precision of the message and meaning. – Alertness for the evolution of language, both in the written and the spoken form. – Alertness and willingness to keep following changes in language, for instance in the area of justice, society in general, slang, informal language, etc.”

2. Intercultural competence

EMT – Intercultural Competence in general ATA – Cultural, historical and political knowledge; Usage trends knowledge The practicing translators of the ATA did not break down this area into detailed knowledges, skills, and abilities, perhaps because, swimming in a bilingual sea, they did not notice the water of culture.
Snell-Hornby 1992	“Thus translation is primarily a sociocultural activity which presupposes not only language competence but also extensive factual and encyclopaedic knowledge as well as familiarity with the everyday norms and conventions of both source and target culture.” (11) “…the profile of our envisaged professional translator becomes bolder: he or she is not only a bilingual but also a bicultural (if not multicultural) specialist working with and within an infinite variety of areas of technical expertise.” (11)
Kaiser-Cooke 1994	“Translation is therefore a process of conceptual restructuring within the conventions of the target culture. Cultural knowledge in this broad sense is the very essence of translatorial expertise and it is this that translators base their decisions on.” (138)
Ostarhild 1994	“3. to test the facility of the language practitioner to perform accurate intermediation between two languages with a high degree of sensitivity to both language cultures; 4. to demonstrate a knowledge and an understanding of both contemporary language cultures of relevance to Hong Kong and China;” (53-54)
Simon 1994	“…students will become accustomed to making the vital connections which link their source text to the social or cultural context in which it is meant to be read or spoken.” (69) Their programme should have made them sensitive to social and cultural differences between the two countries… (79)
Schäffner 1998	“In addition, it involves at least … subject- and culture-specific knowledge, and a number of (re)search skills…” (125)
Neubert 2000	“…translators cannot but mediate between the culture of the sender and that of the recipient. They are the culture specialists who combine in their mindset elements of both, at least with respect to their knowledge, not necessarily their integration, about what is strikingly, but also less visibly, contrastive (or identical) between source and target cultural patternings.” (10)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…they are familiar with the relevant cultural background.” (2) “Background knowledge and an understanding of the cultural context are qualities vital to the translator…” (14)
MacKenzie 2004	“…the translator’s roles require … linguistic-cultural skills…” (32)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“Achter en in de taal schuilt een geschiedenis, een maatschappij, een cultuur, een volk. De tolk of vertaler zal deze kennis moeten hebben om de taal in zijn finesses te kunnen begrijpen. Voor het werk van een tolk of vertaler is het van belang om over zowel hedendaagse culturele kennis als historische kennis te beschikken.” (49) Our translation: Behind and in a language lies a history, a society, a culture, a people. The interpreter or translator should have this knowledge in order to understand the subtleties of the language. For the work of an interpreter or translator, it is important to have both contemporary cultural knowledge as well as historical knowledge.
Kelly 2005	“Cultural and intercultural competence. Culture here refers not only to encyclopaedic knowledge of history, geography, institutions and so on of the cultures involved (including the translator’s or student’s own), but also and more particularly, values, myths, perceptions, beliefs, behaviors and textual representations of these. Awareness of issues of intercultural communication and translation as a special form thereof is also included here.” (32)
Hansen 2007	“…the functional approach to translation requires highly developed skills on the translators’ part. If they are to communicate, they must be able to identify with the target text recipients. They must know the target text culture and the target text receiver(s) well.” (203) “…our graduates have to be experts in cross-cultural communication and in advanced and specialized translation.” (204) “Social, cultural and intercultural competence comprises two factors, namely: - an implicit socially and culturally conditioned understanding of one’s own social and cultural background as well as the background of other societies; and - an explicit knowledge of social and cultural norms and differences, e.g., living conditions, values, norms, customs, attitudes, feelings, prejudices, intentions, motives in different societies.” (206)
Chodkiewicz 2012	Ranked 3.58/5.00 “…intercultural competence, with the second highest level of agreement among the respondents (p. SD = 0.85, s. SD = 0.61).” (47) “What also proves that this competence is regarded as crucial and is well-established in the respondents’ minds is the fact that it had the highest level of agreement (p. SD = 0.81, s. SD = 0.50). Yet again, the participants validated the well-established components of a competence which does not occupy the central position in new models.” [48]

EMT – Sociolinguistic competence in general ATA – (no specific category)
Wright et al. 1987	“…the translator may be in a position to advise clients concerning critical extra-textual matters.” (123)
Bell 1991	“Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge of and ability to produce and understand utterances appropriately in context, i.e. as constrained by topic, the status of the participants, purposes of the interaction, etc.” (41)
Hewson & Martin 1991	“(b) Dissimilative competence … includes … (1) an aptitude to generate and dissimilate homologous statements and (2) an aptitude to define and recreate socio-cultural norms.” (52) “For us, [competence] is measured by his ability to analyse, compare, and convert cultural systems, while respecting both the conflicting forces within one LC, and the interplay of these forces as LCs are brought into contact.” (116)
Cao 1996	“Sociolinguistic Competence refers to the knowledge of the sociolinguistic conventions for performing language functions appropriately in a given context and the mastery of appropriate language in different sociolinguistic contexts with emphasis on appropriateness of meaning and appropriateness of forms. The latter comprises knowledge of the criteria governing the production and interpretation of language in different sociolinguistic contexts, including the control of rules of meaning and the rules of form. This includes sensitivity to dialect or language variety, sensitivity to differences in register, sensitivity to naturalness, ability to interpret cultural references and figures of speech.  In translation, Pragmatic Competence includes the familiarity with, comprehension and interpretation of the pragmatic and sociolinguistic conventions and rules in the SL and the ability to reproduce them in an appropriate form according to the TL conventions.” (331)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…an awareness and understanding of the ‘dynamics of translating’, i.e. a consideration of source text and author, expected readership and the cultural setting of the source and target languages…” (13)
PACTE 2003	“Socio-linguistic knowledge is knowledge of the socio-linguistic conventions needed to carry out language acts that are acceptable in a given context; this includes knowledge of language registers … and of dialects ….” (58)

EMT – Knowing how to recognise function and meaning in language variations (social, geographical, historical, stylistic) ATA – Usage trends knowledge This area is generally subsumed under more general comments by most authors.
MacKenzie 2004	“…the ability to recognise and write in different registers.” (34)

EMT – Knowing how to identify the rules for interaction relating to a specific community, including non-verbal elements (useful knowledge for negotiation)

ATA – Usage trends knowledge

This area is generally subsumed under more general comments by most authors.

EMT – Knowing how to produce a register appropriate to a given situation, for a particular document (written) or speech (oral) ATA – Able to understand nuances and registers of a language pair; General writing skills
Wright et al. 1987	“‘The translator’s style should be facile, smooth and unequivocal, particularly in technical translations.’ (Berger) Technical and commercial translators are, in fact, technical writers, and their work should be concise, technically accurate, consistent, and clear, as well as correct in spelling, punctuation, and grammar. … Consequently, one must determine, for instance, whether a text is to be used by an automotive engineer or a mechanic, and choose the vocabulary and level of language accordingly.” (119)
Bell 1991	“…communicative competence in both cultures, consisting of: (1) knowledge of the rules of the code which govern usage and knowledge of and ability to utilize the conventions which constrain use. (2) knowledge of the options available for the expression of all three macrofunctions of language and knowledge of an ability to use the options available for making clauses count as speech acts in conformity with the community ground-rules for the production and interpretation of a range of communicative acts (i.e. discourse).” (42)
Snell-Hornby 1992	“…ease of style…” (9)
Simon 1994	“They should be able to act as interpreters and translators between a range of different speakers and texts as well as being able to interpret the one culture to the other.” (79)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A good translator must have empathy for his or her target readers. He or she must ensure that the translated product is appropriate to the intelligence and proficiency levels of the target reader. … In other words, translators must know the skopos or purpose of their translation task.”

EMT – Textual competence in general ATA - Textual analysis skills
Bell 1991	“…the professional (technical) translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge; target language (TL) knowledge; text-type knowledge; source language (SL) knowledge; subject area (‘real-world’) knowledge; and contrastive knowledge. (36, quoting Johnson and Whitelock 1987)” “3. Discourse competence: the ability to combine form and meaning to achieve unified spoken or written texts in different genres. This unity depends on cohesion in form (the way in which utterances are linked structurally to facilitate interpretation of text) and coherence in meaning (the relationships among the different meanings in a text; literal meanings, communicative functions or social meaning.” (41)
Snell-Hornby 1992	“…and an understanding of the author’s message.” (9)
Wu 1994	“…textual study has now become a guideline underlying our training of translators, and efforts have been made to bring this concept home to our translator trainees.” (92)
Simon 1994	“Courses in translation … will normally aim to confront students with a range of text genres.” (68)
Cao 1996	“Pragmatic Competence includes (a) Illocutionary Competence and (b) Sociolinguistic Competence. Illocutionary Competence refers to knowledge of the pragmatic conventions for performing acceptable language functions…” (331)
Schäffner 1998	“In addition, it involves at least knowledge of communicative and text-typological conventions in the source- and target-language cultures…” (125)
Malmkjær 1998	“…during Anticipation, translators establish the context for ST – who has written it, why, when, for whom – and for TT – who wants it, why, when, and for whom.” (7)
Neubert 2000	“Translators are supposed to be conversant in these text worlds or rather, they have to acquire the know-how of the various professions and trades.” (8)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…an awareness of text typology and types of translation and, in particular, of the differences and uses of semantic as opposed to communicative translation…” (13)
PACTE 2003	“Textual knowledge is knowledge of texture (coherence and cohesion mechanisms) and of different genres with their respective conventions (structure, language features, etc.).” (58)
Kelly 2005	“Communicative and textual competence in at least two languages and cultures. This area covers both active and passive skills in the two languages involved, together with awareness of textuality and discourse, and textual and discourse conventions in the cultures involved.” (32)
Angelelli 2009	“…T[ranslation] is very well organized into sections and/or paragraphs in a manner consistent with similar TL texts. The T. has a masterful style. It flows together naturally and forms a natural whole.” (40)

EMT – Knowing how to understand and analyse the macrostructure of a document and its overall coherence (including where it consists of visual and sound elements) ATA – Textual analysis skills
Vienne 1998	“The first, basic element of translational competence is, properly speaking, the ability to analyze a variety of translational situations.” (112) “Future translators therefore need to learn the skill of situational analysis…” (113)

EMT – Knowing how to grasp the presuppositions, the implicit, allusions, stereotypes and intertextual nature of a document ATA – Textual analysis skills
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Unseren Studienabgängern wird zum Beispiel vorgeworfen, dass sie nicht in der Lage seien, die Denkweise in den Ausgangstexten nachzuvollziehen und im Falle von sprachlichen Unzulänglichkeiten den Sinn in der Zielsprache trotzdem richtig wiederzugeben. Es wird also von ihnen erwartet, dass sie sich vom Gesagten lösen und an seiner Stelle erraten können, was der Autor sagen wollte.” (310) Our translation: “For instance, our graduates are accused of not being in a position to follow the mentality in the source texts and, in case of linguistic inadequacies, to reflect the meaning in the target language correctly nevertheless. It is thus expected of them that they can disengage themselves from what is said and in place of that guess what the author wanted to say.”
Hansen 2007	“Pragmatic competence is … an implicit ability to use language appropriately in specific situations. This means understanding a text and appreciating the author’s intentions.” (206)

EMT – Knowing how to describe and evaluate one’s problems with comprehension and define strategies for resolving those problems

ATA – Able to think analytically

This area is generally subsumed under more general comments by most authors.

EMT – Knowing how to extract and summarise the essential information in a document (ability to summarise)

ATA – Editing and proofreading skills

This area is generally subsumed under more general comments by most authors.

EMT – Knowing how to recognise and identify elements, values and references proper to the cultures represented ATA – Current events knowledge; Cultural, historical and political knowledge
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A good translator must be aware of the culture of both the source and target language readers. In this way, he or she will be able to translate to the target language based on the culture of the target readers and thus facilitate the reading and understanding of the translated text by the target readers.”
Hansen 2007	“It is impossible to draw a border line between translation and adaptation. Undoubtedly this, too, is a question of the culture-specific concept of translation in a ‘parakultur’ or in a ‘diakultur’.” (203) “They must take into account the values, norms, and cultural conventions – both of the source text and of the target text society.” (205)

EMT – Knowing how to bring together and compare cultural elements and methods of composition

ATA – Cultural, historical and political knowledge

This area is generally subsumed under more general comments by most authors.

EMT – Knowing how to compose a document in accordance with the conventions of the genre and rhetorical standards ATA – General writing skills; Technical writing skills
Bell 1991	“3. Discourse competence: the ability to combine form and meaning to achieve unified spoken or written texts in different genres. This unity depends on cohesion in form (the way in which utterances are linked structurally to facilitate interpretation of text) and coherence in meaning (the relationships among the different meanings in a text; literal meanings, communicative functions or social meaning.” (41)
Cao 1996	“Textual Competence, in turn, includes the knowledge of the conventions for joining utterances together to form a text according to rules of cohesion and rhetorical organisation. … In translation, Textual Competence relies heavily on the ability to comprehend such rules and conventions in the SL and the ability to reproduce them in the TL appropriately, i.e. according to the norms of the TL.” (331)
PACTE 2003	“Pragmatic knowledge is knowledge of the pragmatic conventions needed to carry out language acts that are acceptable in a given context; they make it possible to use language to express and understand linguistic functions and speech acts.” (58)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“De vertaler kan zijn vertaling een verantwoorde of nodige visuele vormelijke presentatie geven waarbij rekening wordt gehouden met de vormgeving van de brontekst zowel als de conventies van de doeltaal.” (55) Our translation: “The translator can give his translation a justified or necessary formal visual presentation that takes the style of the source text into account as well as the conventions of the target language.”

EMT – Knowing how to draft, rephrase, restructure, condense, and post-edit rapidly and well (in languages A and B)

ATA – Editing and proofreading skills; Computer skills: word processor

This area in the EMT is actually not a translation competence per se, but rather a particular kind of editing skill. It is true that some translators today work with machine translation and post-editing, but this is skill is not part of the core competence of translation, or even actually of typical translation editing, since it involves editing a text that is defective in ways not typical of human translation. It is thus also not reflected in the literature on human translation competence.

3. Information mining competence

EMT - Information mining competence in general ATA – Terminology research skills Typically, articles tend to focus on more specific skills, so there are fewer references to this skill in general.
MacKenzie 1998	“…resource management, information management…” (33)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“An effective translator should have all the necessary translation tools such as monolingual, bilingual and subject dictionaries, thesauri, terminology lists, a computer, a printer etc. available while translating so that no time is wasted searching for them while translating.”
Angelelli 2009	“Skillful use of resource materials is evident.” (41)

EMT – Knowing how to identify one’s information and documentation requirements

ATA – Textual analysis skills

EMT – Developing strategies for documentary and terminological research (including approaching experts) ATA – Computer skills: Internet; Able to use a corpus
Vienne 1998	“The second basic element of translational competence is … the ability to decide on a strategy for resource research adapted to the translational situation…” (113)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…candidates need to make effective use of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, and this includes counter-checking meanings in other dictionaries as well as understanding the text itself.” (14)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“Alertheid voor de evolutie van de terminologische hulpmiddelen zoals gespecialiseerde woordenboeken, internet, data- en termbanken, publicaties enzovoorts.” (44) Our translation: “Alertness for the evolution of terminological aids such as specialized dictionaries, the Internet, databases and termbases, publications, etc.”

EMT – Knowing how to extract and process relevant information for a given task (documentary, terminological, phraseological information) ATA - Terminology research skills; Computer skills: Internet
Vienne 1998	“…the ability to evaluate and exploit the resources necessary to carry out the assignment received.” (113)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“– De vertaler kan alle nodige papieren of elektronische standaardnaslagwerken en meer specifieke naslagwerken opsporen en gebruiken. Hij kan alle nodige of nuttige informatie op een efficiënte manier opslaan en beheren. – De vertaler kan bijkomende relevante teksten opsporen of informanten raadplegen die behulpzaam kunnen zijn bij het interpreteren van de te vertalen tekst of het oplossen van vertaalmoeilijkheden.”  (54) Our translation: “– Translators can track down and use all necessary paper or electronic standard reference works and more specific reference works. They can file and manage all necessary or useful information in an efficient matter. – Translators can track down additional relevant texts or consult informants who can be helpful in interpreting the text to be translated or resolving translation difficulties.”

EMT – Developing criteria for evaluation vis-à-vis documents accessible on the internet or any other medium, i.e. knowing how to evaluate the reliability of documentary sources (critical mind) ATA – Terminology research skills; Computer skills: Internet
PACTE 2000	“Psycho-physiological Competence can be defined as the ability to use all kinds of psychomotor, cognitive and attitudinal resources. The most important of these may be psychomotor skills for reading and writing; cognitive skills (e.g. memory, attention span, creativity and logical reasoning); psychological attitudes (e.g. intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigour, a critical spirit, and self-confidence).” (102)
PACTE 2003	“Finally, the psycho-physiological sub-competence would appear to warrant a status somewhat different from that of other sub-competencies since it forms an integral part of all expert knowledge. Rather than ‘sub-competence’ it would perhaps be more appropriate to speak of psycho-physiological ‘components’.” (57-58) “Psycho-physiological components. Different types of cognitive and attitudinal components and psycho-motor mechanisms. They include: (1) cognitive components such as memory, perception, attention and emotion; (2) attitudinal aspects such as intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigour, critical spirit, knowledge of and confidence in one’s own abilities, the ability to measure one’s own abilities, motivation, etc.; (3) abilities such as creativity, logical reasoning, analysis and synthesis, etc.” (59)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“– De vertaler kan de relatieve betrouwbaarheid van bijkomende informatie inschatten en deze oordeelkundig aanwenden in zijn vertaalopdracht. Hij kan ook de eventuele informanten kritisch en efficiënt bevragen.” (54) “– De vertaler kan zich inwerken in de specifieke bron- en doeltaalterminologie en daarbij de relatieve betrouwbaarheid van termen en hun onderlinge relatie bepalen.” (55) Our translation: “– Translators can estimate the relative reliability of additional information and apply this judiciously in their translation assignments. They can also critically and efficiently access any information.” “– Translators can work themselves into the specific source and target language terminology and determine the relative reliability of terms and their relationship to each other.”

EMT – Knowing how to use tools and search engines effectively (e.g. terminology software, electronic corpora, electronic dictionaries) ATA - Terminology research skills; Able to use a corpus; Able to create and maintain a term base
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“– De vertaler kan de efficiëntie van zijn zoekstrategieën evalueren en constant bijsturen en waar mogelijk verbeteren.” (55) Our translation: “– Translators can evaluate the efficiency of their search strategies and constantly adjust them and improve them where possible.”

EMT – Mastering the archiving of one’s own documents

ATA – Computer skills: word processor

4. Technological competence

EMT – Technological competence in general ATA – Computer skills: word processor; Computer skills: Internet; Computer skills: CAT; Able to create and maintain a term base
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“…preference is given to freelance translators who offer the following: … 3. delivery of translations on electronic media in the specified layout and in the required software package.” (107-108)
Ivanova 1998	Paraphrases Delisle 1992 as “Technical competence = ability to use aids to translation: databases, word processing, Dictaphone.” (93)
Vienne 1998	“According to Roberts (1984; cited in Delisle 1992:42), translational competence consists of five components (adapted from Delisle): … Technical Competence The ability to use aids to translation such as word processors, databases, Dictaphones, etc.” (111)
PACTE 2000	“3. Instrumental-Professional Competence is composed of knowledge and skills related both to the tools of the trade and the profession. The sub-components may be very diverse: knowledge and use of all kinds of documentation sources and new technologies, knowledge of the work market (translation briefs, etc.) and how to behave as a professional translator, especially in relation to professional ethics.” (101)
PACTE 2003	“Instrumental sub-competence. Predominantly procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation sources and information and communication technologies applied to translation: dictionaries of all kinds, encyclopaedias, grammars, style books, parallel texts, electronic corpora, searchers, etc.” (59)
Kelly 2005	“Professional and instrumental competence. Use of documentary resources of all kinds, terminological research, information management for these purposes: use of IT tools for professional practice (word-processing, desktop publishing, data bases, Internet, email…) together with more traditional tools such as fax, dictaphone. Basic notions for managing professional activity: contracts, tenders, billing, tax; ethics; professional associations.” (32-33)

EMT – Knowing how to use effectively and rapidly and to integrate a range of software to assist in correction, translation, terminology, layout, documentary research (for example text processing, spell and grammar check, the internet, translation memory, terminology database, voice recognition software) ATA – Computer skills: word processor; Computer skills: Internet; Computer skills: CAT; Able to create and maintain a term base
Simon 1994	“Certainly no future translator ought to be allowed to graduate without having acquired a high order of skills in word processing. Beyond that, there is a range of information which a computer can put at the disposal of the young graduate and the capacity it offers for communicating with other translators.” (72) “Courses in word processing and in information science will also serve as a most valuable preparation for translators and interpreters.” (77)
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“…software knowledge, keyboarding skills, operating computer…” (112)
MacKenzie 2004	“Other skills required, particularly in the context of research and text production, are IT skills. These skills … include word processing skills, competence in using the tools available to assist the translation process such as translation memory tools, terminology software and the Internet.” (32)
Olvera-Lobo 2009	“Translators … must also develop other highly important skills such as documentation, terminology and desktop publishing, all of which are supported by the use of computers and telecommunications.” (166)
Folaron 2010	“…changing client environments, file formats and language requirements. They [professional translators] have had to become more dexterous and proficient with the tools that perform these functions.” (432)

EMT – Knowing how to create and manage a database and files ATA – (no specific competence)
Ivanova 1998	Paraphrases Delisle 1992 as “Technical competence = ability to use aids to translation: databases, word processing, Dictaphone.” (93)
Vienne 1998	“According to Roberts (1984; cited in Delisle 1992:42), translational competence consists of five components (adapted from Delisle): … Technical Competence The ability to use aids to translation such as word processors, databases, Dictaphones, etc.” (111)

EMT – Knowing how to adapt to and familiarise oneself with new tools, particularly for the translation of multimedia and audiovisual material ATA – (no specific competence)
Folaron 2010	“Historically, professional translators have had to find ways to keep up-to-date on the changes in technology produced in response to changing client environments, file formats and language requirements.” (432)

EMT – Knowing how to prepare and produce a translation in different formats and for different technical media

ATA – Computer skills: word processor

This EMT category is not reflected in the literature on general translation competence, because it is not a translation competence per se, but rather a service provision competence.

EMT – Knowing the possibilities and limits of MT

ATA – Computer skills: CAT

This EMT category is not reflected in the literature on general translation competence, partly because most of the literature predates effective MT, but also because, again, use of MT is not directly a translation skill, but rather an editing skill.

5. Thematic competence

EMT – Thematic competence in general ATA – General knowledge; Current events knowledge; Cultural, historical and political knowledge; Subject-matter specific knowledge
Wright et al. 1987	“Technical competence … derives from an amalgam of basic knowledge and research skills.” (116-117)
Cao 1996	“Translational Knowledge Structures” (328)
MacKenzie 2004	“…information management…” (33)
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Den frisch Diplomierten gehe jeglicher Sinn für die markwirtschaftlichen Abläufe ab, ihr Weltwissen sei zu beschränkt, sie könnten nicht selbständig arbeiten und vor allem seien sie völlig ineffizient!” (310) Our translation: “The new graduates are said to be lacking any sense of economic processes, their world knowledge is too limited, they cannot work independently and, above all, they are totally inefficient!”
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A good translator must be aware of the importance of cognitive information processing of texts so that they can be accurately understood, processed and transformed by their cognitive system.”
Kelly 2005	“Subject area competence. Basic knowledge of subject areas the future translator will/may work in, to a degree sufficient to allow comprehension of source texts and access to specialized documentation to solve translation problems.” (32)
Angelelli 2009	“…T[ranslation] contains elements that reflect a detailed and nuanced understanding of the major and minor themes of the ST and the manner in which they are presented in the ST. The meaning of the ST is masterfully communicated in the T.” (40)

EMT – Knowing how to search for appropriate information to gain a better grasp of the thematic aspects of a document (cf. Information mining competence) ATA - Able to think analytically; Computer skills: Internet
Ivanova 1998	Paraphrases Delisle 1992 as “Methodological competence = ability to research on a particular subject and assimilate terminology proper to the subject;” (93)
Vienne 1998	“According to Roberts (1984; cited in Delisle 1992:42), translational competence consists of five components (adapted from Delisle): … Methodological Competence The ability to research a particular subject and to select appropriate terminology” (111)
Schäffner 1998	“In addition, it involves at least … subject- and culture-specific knowledge, and a number of (re)search skills…” (125)
MacKenzie 1998	“…they will need to know how to find and verify information, and should also be able to supplement their knowledge when necessary through resource research and through cooperation with other actors involved in the translational action.” (15-16)
PACTE 2000	“3. Instrumental-Professional Competence is composed of knowledge and skills related both to the tools of the trade and the profession. The sub-components may be very diverse: knowledge and use of all kinds of documentation sources and new technologies, knowledge of the work market (translation briefs, etc.) and how to behave as a professional translator, especially in relation to professional ethics.” (101)
PACTE 2003	“Given its importance within translation competence, knowledge about translation, which had previously been ascribed to extra-linguistic sub-competence and instrumental/professional sub-competence, would now appear to constitute a specific sub-competence. Data collection would be facilitated.” (57) “Instrumental sub-competence. Predominantly procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation sources and information and communication technologies applied to translation: dictionaries of all kinds, encyclopaedias, grammars, style books, parallel texts, electronic corpora, searchers, etc.” (59)
MacKenzie 2004	“Knowing where to look for information, whom to consult, and how to classify and systematise information sources, i.e. information management, is part and parcel of this competence. … Information search and research is part of this competence … as students will need to find parallel texts and be able to evaluate and utilise them.” (34)
Hurtado Albir 2007	“Instrumental subcompetence comprises essentially operative knowledge related to using documentary sources and information and communication technology (ICT) applied to translation.” (171)

EMT – Learning to develop one’s knowledge in specialist fields and applications (mastering systems of concepts, methods of reasoning, presentation, controlled language, terminology, etc.) (learning to learn) ATA – Subject-matter specific knowledge
Schmitt 1990	“…95% der Antwortenden [haben] zusätzlich zur sprachlichen bzw. übersetzerischen Ausbildung mindestens ein Sachfach (Ergänzungsfach) studiert, bei 75% konzentrierte sich diese fachliche Ausbildung auf eine Fachrichtung, wie etwa Technik, Wirtschaft, Recht, oder Medizin.” (97) Our translation: “…95% of those answering studied at least one specialized area (supplemental area) in addition to language or translation training; for 75%, this specialized training focused on one subject-matter area, such as technology, business, law, or medicine.”
Bell 1991	“… the professional (technical) translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge; target language (TL) knowledge; text-type knowledge; source language (SL) knowledge; subject area (‘real-world’) knowledge; and contrastive knowledge.” (36, quoting Johnson and Whitelock 1987)
Hewson & Martin 1991	“Transferred competence, by which we mean all the dissimilative competence which has been accumulated and committed to translation auxiliaries such as translation methods, dictionaries, data banks, and expert systems.” (52) “…there cannot be equal competence in every field, simply because no one speaker has intimate knowledge of and access to all types of discourse.” (116)
Snell-Hornby 1992	“…knowledge of the material concerned…” (9) “…also extensive factual and encyclopaedic knowledge…” (11) A translator is “…a bicultural (if not multicultural) specialist working with and within an infinite variety of areas of technical expertise.” (11)
Wilss 1992	“Die Vorbereitung und Durchführung einer Übersetzung ist nicht ohne die vom Ür [Übersetzer] eingebrachten Wissenshorizonte und Wertvorstellungen denkbar.” (20) Our translation: “The preparation and implementation of a translation is inconceivable without the scope of knowledge and the values that the translator brings to it.”
Kaiser-Cooke 1994	“The knowledge required for the process of translation is conventionally broken down into linguistic knowledge or competence, subject knowledge, and that elusive creature, translatorial competence.” (137) “Knowledge should not be imparted in isolation … but in relation to the main goal of culture-specific conceptual restructuring.” (138-139)
Neubert 1994	“Suffice it here to say that subject competence is in itself also highly complex. It comprises not only the domain knowledge of various subjects and communicative macrostructures, which typify the world of texts in the source as well as in the target community. In addition the translator has to develop a high proficiency with regard to the needs and purposes of vastly different translational situations. (418) “Think only of the necessity of subject knowledge for technical translation. Similarly, the efficient matching of technical items and processes with terminologies is a unique feature of the future translator’s subject-cum-language knowledge.” (419)
Stolze 1994	“Sie gründet auf einer unverzichtbaren Wissensbasis, einem deklarativen und prozeduralen Faktenwissen in Bezug auf Sprach-, Kultur- und Fachkenntnisse im Gedächtnis des Übersetzers…” (387) Our translation: “It is founded on an indispensable knowledge base, declarative and procedural factual knowledge with regard to linguistic, cultural, and technical knowledge in the memory of the translator…”
Wu 1994	“Sufficient emphasis should be placed on the accumulation of relevant knowledge because it is one of the most crucial ingredients for comprehension.” (87) “…a strong capacity for instantly picking up the special terms and information most relevant to the meeting he is expected to service.” (90)
Ostarhild 1994	“…to recognize language-based expertise in a particular area of professional interest such as education, finance, etc.” (53-54)
Simon 1994	“Mastering the special vocabulary in the source and target languages is clearly not enough. Students should not allow themselves to translate business texts until they have acquired a basic understanding of relevant aspects of business practice; nor should they translate from literature until they are sure that they have some understanding of the basic principles of literary appreciation.” (69) “…have a good understanding of the basic features of one of these [infrastructure] disciplines together with some understanding of at least one or two others.” (79)
Cao 1996	“For practical purposes, translators need to be knowledgeable in a multitude of subject areas. Even the comprehension of a text requires more than just linguistic knowledge. Texts carry meanings in a particular context.” (332) “Within our model, Translational Knowledge Structure is defined as the knowledge translators possess which is essential to achieving interlingual and cross-cultural communication in translation. Translational Knowledge Structures include general, special and literary knowledge. General knowledge refers to knowledge about the world. It includes knowledge about ecology, material culture, social organisation and other areas of both the SL and TL communities (Straight 1981). Special knowledge includes specialist technical knowledge in a specialist field such as medicine, law, economics and science and technology. Literary knowledge includes knowledge in areas including the Bible, stage, film, lyric, poetic and literary work, cultural history and literary studies (cf. Snell-Hornby 1988: 32).” (333)
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“The translator needs the ability to offer thorough subject knowledge in addition to language skills. …preference is given to freelance translators who offer … competence in the subject area…” (107-108)
Ivanova 1998	“…also a specific skill in its own right since it involves co-ordination and selection of domain-specific information in relation to the demands of the concrete translation task…” (94) Paraphrases Delisle 1992 as “Disciplinary competence = ability to translate texts in basic disciplines (i.e. work with domain-specific knowledge)” (93)
Vienne 1998	“According to Roberts (1984; cited in Delisle 1992:42), translational competence consists of five components (adapted from Delisle): … Disciplinary Competence The ability to translate texts in some basic disciplines such as economics, information science, law, etc.” (111)
Schäffner 1998	“In addition, it involves at least … subject- and culture-specific knowledge, and a number of (re)search skills…” (125)
MacKenzie 1998	“In addition, translators require broad general knowledge and often specialized knowledge of the subject matter in question.” (15)
Neubert 2000	“In particular, a knowledge of the repertoires of the languages for special purposes, i.e. terminologies as well as preferred syntactic and morphological conventions, are part and parcel of linguistic competence. … Subject competence can … almost never be exhaustive. … [It] is, of course, not necessarily active knowledge for them, and available all the time, but they must know the ways and means of how to access this when they need it. Translators don’t know everything and they need not know everything but they must know where to look for it and where to find it. … This knowledge … has to be sufficiently broad and deep to satisfy the specialists.” (9)
PACTE 2000	“Extra-linguistic Competence is composed of general world knowledge and specialist knowledge that can be activated according to the needs of each translation situation. The sub-components may include explicit or implicit knowledge about translation, bicultural, encyclopaedic and subject knowledge.” (101)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“Candidates need to use analytical language skills and be able to handle specialised and semi-specialised terminology in both the source and target languages.” (9) “…some experience in handling concepts and terminology in both languages of the examination…” (13) “Background knowledge and an understanding of the cultural context are qualities vital to the translator…” (14) “Candidates for this examination are expected to read widely and keep abreast with current affairs so that they are not daunted by unfamiliar historical or cultural references.” (20)
PACTE 2003	“Extra-linguistic sub-competence. Predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and explicit, about the world in general and special areas. It includes: (1) bicultural knowledge (about the source and target cultures); (2) encyclopaedic knowledge (about the world in general); (3) subject knowledge (in special areas).” (58-59)
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Auf Firmen- bzw. Dienstebene müssen sie sich themen- und textrelevante Dokumente in kürzester Zeit einverleiben können.” (312) Our translation: “At the level of the company or government service, they must be able to absorb topically and textually relevant documents in the shortest of time.”
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“– Alertheid voor de evolutie van de specifiek professionele terminologie van de gerechtstolk.” (43) Our translation: “– Alertness for the evolution of the specific professional terminology of the court interpreter.”
Kaur & Singh 2005	“For a translator to translate scientific texts from English to Malay or between any other pair of languages, he or she must first of all be a subject specialist so that the content of the original text is communicated accurately, clearly and naturally. If the translator is a chemistry expert, then he or she should translate mainly chemistry texts rather than texts in other sciences, because this will ensure both quality and the speed of the translation.” “The researcher would like to add that if a translator wishes to translate scientific texts, then he or she must also receive science training.”
Hansen 2007	“The translation of business texts or technical texts requires much expert knowledge and responsibility.” (203-204)
Hurtado Albir 2007	“Extralinguistic sub-competence comprises essentially declarative knowledge which relates to the world in general and to specific areas: bicultural, thematic and encyclopaedic knowledge.” (171)

EMT – Developing a spirit of curiosity, analysis and summary ATA – Able to use common sense; Able to think analytically; Able to think intuitively
Kaiser-Cooke 1994	“…lateral thinking … is always necessary.” (139)
Wußler 1997	“…das Konzept der Professionalität [könnte] die Vermittlung einer allgemeinen translatologischen Kompetenz bedeuten, die die Studierenden befähigt, translatorische Handlungsmuster zu reflektieren und in größere ‘Handlungs-, Sinn- und Systemzusammenhänge’ (Prunč 1997, 106) zu stellen sowie ausgehend von praktischen translatorischen Handlungen wiederum Rückschlüsse auf translatologische Konzepte zu ziehen und diese kritisch zu hinterfragen.” (271) Our translation: “…the concept of professionality [could] mean imparting general translatological competence that enables the students to reflect on patterns of translatorial action and to integrate them into larger ‘action, meaning, and system contexts’ (Prunč 1997, 106), as well as, in turn, to arrive at conclusions regarding translatological concepts starting from practical translatorial actions and to examine them critically.”
MacKenzie 1998	“…two very important elements of the professional translator’s competence as an expert are the abilities to ask the right questions and to know how and where to look for the answers.” (15-16)
PACTE 2000	“Psycho-physiological Competence can be defined as the ability to use all kinds of psychomotor, cognitive and attitudinal resources. The most important of these may be psychomotor skills for reading and writing; cognitive skills (e.g. memory, attention span, creativity and logical reasoning); psychological attitudes (e.g. intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigor, a critical spirit, and self-confidence).” (102)
PACTE 2003	“Finally, the psycho-physiological sub-competence would appear to warrant a status somewhat different from that of other sub-competencies since it forms an integral part of all expert knowledge. Rather than ‘sub-competence’ it would perhaps be more appropriate to speak of psycho-physiological ‘components’.” (57-58) “Psycho-physiological components. Different types of cognitive and attitudinal components and psycho-motor mechanisms. They include: (1) cognitive components such as memory, perception, attention and emotion; (2) attitudinal aspects such as intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigor, critical spirit, knowledge of and confidence in one’s own abilities, the ability to measure one’s own abilities, motivation, etc.; (3) abilities such as creativity, logical reasoning, analysis and synthesis, etc.” (59)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A translator should know that translation is a learning activity and it involves the use of the main direct (memory, cognitive and compensation) and indirect (metacognitive, affective and social) language-learning strategies proposed by Oxford (1990). A translator who uses these strategies will be able to perform a good translation.”
Hurtado Albir 2007	“Finally, the psycho-physiological components consist of: … attitudinal aspects such as intellectual curiosity, perseverance, thoroughness, a critical spirit, knowledge and confidence in one’s own capabilities…” (171)

6. Translation service provision competence

EMT – Translation service provision competence in general ATA - Translation methods knowledge; Translation standards knowledge; Technical writing skills; Editing and proofreading skills; Able to read a source language and write in a target language of a language pair; Able to recognize and verify correspondence for a language pair; Able to perform language transfer; Able to follow specifications: audience, purpose and terminology This general area subsumes a number of specific ATA KSAs. It is cited first because many sources do not break down the categories as specifically as the EMT model.
Schmitt 1990	“Manche Prüfungsordnungen … [entsprechen] bei durchschnittlich 8,3 Wörtern pro Zeile, einer Übersetzungsleistung von 170 Wörtern/Stunde. In der Praxis werden dagegen im Durchschnitt 291 Zeilen pro 8-Stunden-Arbeitstag übersetzt, das entspricht rund 300 Wörtern pro Stunde.” (99) Our translation: “Some examination regulations … with an average of 8.3 words per line, [correspond to] translation production of 170 words/hour. In professional practice, on the other hand, an average of 291 lines are translated per 8-hour workday, which corresponds to about 300 words per hour.”
Ivanova 1998	“…and ‘market-oriented’ skills of researching, negotiating, computer skills, etc.” (94)
Razmjou 2004	“The first step is extensive reading of different translations of different kinds of texts…”
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Marktfähig sind nur Übersetzer, die innerhalb nützlicher Frist eine ausreichende Textmenge qualitativ überzeugend verarbeiten können. … Je nach Ausgangs- und Zielsprache entspricht das Markttempo etwa 300 Wörtern pro Stunde.” (311) Our translation: “Only those translators are marketable who can process a sufficient quantity of text with convincing quality within a reasonable period of time. … Depending on the source and target language, the market speed corresponds to about 300 words per hour.”
Hansen 2007	“Translational competence” (205)
Hurtado Albir 2007	“TC [translation competence] is seen as comprising five sub-competences (bilingual, extralinguistic, translation knowledge, instrumental and strategic) as well as some psychophysiological components.” (169-170)
Chodkiewicz 2012	“Most of the comments were related to what the EMT model labels translation service provision competence. The comments reflected and broadened some of the components already touched upon in the EMT model, such as setting realistic deadlines and respecting them, adapting to the demands of different clients and being professional in all situations. Other detailed and practical skills which were not included in the model, but could be subsumed under translation service provision competence, concerned judging one’s ability to deliver a successful translation and refusing if one is incapable of providing such a translation, keeping a record of work for tax purposes, highlighting potential problems and ambiguities before or upon the delivery of a translation, and distinguishing between actual and preferential errors when proofreading other translators’ work.” [50]

EMT – Interpersonal dimension in general ATA – Interpersonal skills; Oral communication skills; Open-minded, objective, accepting-of-criticism; Diplomatic, professional manner, respectful, culturally sensitive; Team-player, collegial, collaborative
Wußler 1997	“…Kommunikationsfähigkeit…” (quoting Arnold 1996, 62)
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Den frisch Diplomierten gehe jeglicher Sinn für die markwirtschaftlichen Abläufe ab, ihr Weltwissen sei zu beschränkt, sie könnten nicht selbständig arbeiten und vor allem seien sie völlig ineffizient!” (310) Our translation: “The new graduates are said to be lacking any sense of economic processes, their world knowledge is too limited, they cannot work independently and, above all, they are totally inefficient!”
Kelly 2005	“Interpersonal competence. Ability to work with other professionals involved in translation process (translators, revisers, documentary researchers, terminologists, project managers, layout specialists), and other actors (clients, initiators, authors, users, subject area experts). Team work. Negotiation skills. Leadership skills.” (33)

EMT – Being aware of the social role of the translator

ATA – (no specific category)

EMT – Knowing how to follow market requirements and job profiles (knowing how to remain aware of developments in demand) ATA – Business skills This business skill is not directly a translation proficiency.
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Auf Marktebene gilt das Gebot steter Beobachtung, damit sie auf Veränderungen in nützlicher Frist reagieren können.” (312) Our translation: “At the market level, the precept of constant observation applies, so that they can react to changes in a reasonable time.”

EMT – Knowing how to organise approaches to clients/potential clients (marketing) ATA – Business skills
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“PRESENTATION … informing, establishing rapport” (112)
MacKenzie 2004	“A further aspect of the translator’s task that is often neglected is marketing ability.” (32)
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Die internationale Wettbewerbsfähigkeit muss deshalb schon bei der Ausbildung gefördert werden – sowie das Bewusstsein, dass man im fremdsprachigen Ausland mit seiner Muttersprache interessanter ist als zu Hause.” (312) Our translation: “It is therefore necessary to promote international competitiveness already during training – as well as an awareness that their native language makes them more interesting in other countries with different languages than at home.”
Folaron 2010	“Professional translators … directly manage client relations, marketing and production themselves, thereby needed to incorporate business management (including accounting) procedures independently into their work cycles.” (430-431)

EMT – Knowing how to negotiate with the client (to define deadlines, tariffs/invoicing, working conditions, access to information, contract, rights, responsibilities, translation specifications, tender specifications, etc.) ATA – Business skills
MacKenzie 2004	“…client management…” (33)
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Übersetzen ist eine Dienstleistung und erfordert Kontaktbereitschaft. … Argumentationsvermögen ist wichtig, aber man darf nicht immer auf der eigenen Meinung beharren und seine eigene Version durchsetzen wollen. Weise ist, wer zugibt, dass mehrere Möglichkeiten bestehen, gleichzeitig aber auch die Unterschiede erklärt und seine Position klar äussert. Das braucht methodische Sicherheit und fundierte Kenntnisse, bis hin zu den typografischen Regeln!” (313) Our translation: “Translation is a service and requires a willingness to make contact. … Argumentative ability is important, but one cannot always insist on one’s own opinion and assert one’s own version. Wise is the person who admits that multiple possibilities exist, but also explains the differences at the same time and clearly states his position. This requires methodological sureness and well-founded knowledge, down to the typographical rules!”
Kelly 2005	“Basic notions for managing professional activity: contracts, tenders, billing, tax; ethics; professional associations.” (33)
Folaron 2010	“Professional translators … directly manage client relations, marketing and production themselves, thereby needed to incorporate business management (including accounting) procedures independently into their work cycles.” (430-431)

EMT – Knowing how to clarify the requirements, objectives and purposes of the client, recipients of the translation and other stakeholders ATA – Business skills; Able to follow specifications: audience, purpose and terminology
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“COMMUNICATION … giving and processing feedback, questioning, listening, summarising, observing, checking understanding…” (112)
Hatim & Mason 1997	“Now, the ability to handle task specification and audience design … constitutes an important translator skill…” (204)
Neubert 2000	“…the translator has to develop a high proficiency with regard to the needs and purpose of vastly different translational situations. … it becomes apparent that translation competence an often only be guaranteed by a team.” (15)
PACTE 2000	“Instrumental-Professional Competence is composed of knowledge and skills related both to the tools of the trade and the profession. The sub-components may be very diverse: knowledge and use of all kinds of documentation sources and new technologies, knowledge of the work market (translation briefs, etc.) and how to behave as a professional translator, especially in relation to professional ethics.” (101)
PACTE 2003	“Given its importance within translation competence, knowledge about translation, which had previously been ascribed to extra-linguistic sub-competence and instrumental/professional sub-competence, would now appear to constitute a specific sub-competence.” (57) “Knowledge about translation sub-competence. Predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and explicit, about what translation is and aspects of the profession. It includes: (1) knowledge about how translation functions: types of translation units, processes required, methods and procedures used (strategies and techniques) and types of problems; (2) knowledge related to professional translation practice: knowledge of the work market (different types of briefs, clients and audiences, etc.” (59)

EMT – Knowing how to plan and manage one’s time, stress, work, budget and ongoing training (upgrading various competences) ATA – Personal time management skills; Organizational skills
MacKenzie 2004	“…time management…” (33)
Stumm-Schwaiger 2004	“Nicht nur braucht er gute Nerven, äusserst wichtig ist auch, a) dass er sein persönliches Arbeitstempo einschätzen kann. Das erlaubt ihm, auch sehr kurzfristig richtig zu planen und so dem Auftraggeber das Vertrauen zu geben, dass ein Termin bei ausgewogener Qualität eingehalten wird. Übernächtigte Übersetzer arbeiten auch nicht besser als unausgeschlafene Fliessbandarbeiter! b) dass er fähig ist, auch mittelfristig und langfristig zu planen. Das Risiko besteht nämlich - insbesondere für den freien Übersetzer - dass er sich sonst zu stark verausgabt und innerhalb weniger Monate ausgebrannt ist. c) dass er Zeitaufwendungen im Umfeld der eigentlichen Übersetzungsarbeit berücksichtigt, wie Einlesen und Textvorbereitung, permanente Aktualisierung des Weltwissens sowie der branchenspezifischen Kenntnisse, administrative Aufgaben und Weiterbildung. (311) Our translation: “Not only do they need strong nerves, it is also extremely important that: a) They can estimate their personal working speed. That permits them to plan correctly even on very short notice and thus to impart trust to the client that a deadline will be met with balanced quality. Worn-out translators also don’t work any better than tired assembly-line workers! b) They are also capable of planning in the medium and long term. There is a risk, after all, particularly for free-lance translators, that otherwise they will work too hard and burn out within a few months. c) They factor in uses of time in the context surrounding actual translation work, such as importing and text preparation, ongoing updating of world knowledge, as well as industry-specific knowledge, administrative tasks, and continuing education.”
Folaron 2010	“…most professional translators in the current market will need to be ‘fluent’ in assessing their own pace of production (according to content difficulty, specialization, experience) and in negotiating contract or project terms (including delivery times and rates)…. Successful negotiation of all these factors depends on the ability to appropriately assess needs, requirements and resources, both human and technological.” (431)

EMT – Knowing how to specify and calculate the services offered and their added value ATA – Business skills

Folaron 2010

“…most professional translators in the current market will need to be ‘fluent’ in assessing their own pace of production (according to content difficulty, specialization, experience) and in negotiating contract or project terms (including delivery times and rates)…. Successful negotiation of all these factors depends on the ability to appropriately assess needs, requirements and resources, both human and technological.” (431)

EMT – Knowing how to comply with instructions, deadlines, commitments, interpersonal competences, team organization ATA – Able to follow specifications: audience, purpose and terminology; Thorough, meticulous, attentive-to-detail; Team-player, collegial, collaborative
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“It goes without saying that delivery on time is expected.” (107-108)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A translator must be committed and disciplined. The translation task commissioned to him or her must be completed by the deadline given so that the information that is translated does not become outdated and the user of the translation is properly served.”

EMT – Knowing the standards applicable to the provision of a translation service

ATA – Translation standards knowledge

No mention is made in the translation competence literature about translation standards, possibly because they have developed only recently.

EMT – Knowing how to comply with professional ethics ATA – Translators ethical obligations
PACTE 2000	“Instrumental-Professional Competence is composed of knowledge and skills related both to the tools of the trade and the profession. The sub-components may be very diverse: … how to behave as a professional translator, especially in relation to professional ethics.” (101)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“Integriteit speelt een grote rol bij tolk- en vertaaldiensten.” (37) Section on “Attitude” (43): “In het tweede geval gaat het om de gedragskenmerken die in het professionele handelen van de tolk of vertaler moeten terugkomen. … De Commissie acht echter de volgende attitudeaspecten van een tolk of vertaler van bijzonder belang: – ethisch bewustzijn; – kritische instelling; – kwaliteitsbewustzijn; – nauwgezetheid; – professioneel bewustzijn; – stressbestendigheid; – uithoudingsvermogen; – zelfstandigheid. (44) Our translation: “Integrity plays a major role in interpreting and translation services.” “Attitude”: “In the second place, it involves the behavioral features that must be reflected in the professional actions of interpreters or translators. … However, the Commission considers the following aspects of the attitude of an interpreter or translator to be especially important:  – ethical awareness – a critical attitude – quality consciousness – meticulousness – professional consciousness – ability to handle stress – stamina – independence.”
Kelly 2005	“Basic notions for managing professional activity: contracts, tenders, billing, tax; ethics; professional associations.” (33)

EMT – Knowing how to work under pressure and with other experts, with a project head (capabilities for making contacts, for cooperation and collaboration), including in a multilingual situation ATA – Team-player, collegial, collaborative
Malmkjær 1998	“They … make plans for possible cooperation with other translators and other kinds of experts.” (7)

EMT – Knowing how to work in a team, including a virtual team ATA – Team-player, collegial, collaborative
Simon 1994	“Learning to work in a group and asking for help from one’s fellows—as well as offering such help—are valuable professional skills in their own right.” (70)
Wußler 1997	“…Fähigkeit zur Teamarbeit…” (quoting Arnold 1996)Our translation: “Ability to work in a team.”
Kiraly 2004	“…job announcements in the language mediation field rarely fail to mention the ability to work as part of a team as a prerequisite for employment.” (106)
MacKenzie 2004	“…the translator’s roles require … also interpersonal skills, since translation is becoming more and more of a team effort.” (32)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“An effective translator must learn to divide the workload among his colleagues who are subject specialists when translating voluminous academic books or long documents in the field of science and technology so that the process of translation can be speeded up and thus the readers are updated with the latest in these fields.”
Kelly 2005	“Interpersonal competence. Ability to work with other professionals involved in translation process (translators, revisers, documentary researchers, terminologists, project managers, layout specialists), and other actors (clients, initiators, authors, users, subject area experts). Team work. Negotiation skills. Leadership skills.” (33)
Olvera-Lobo 2009	“Translation students are expected to learn how to work in teams.” (177)

EMT – Knowing how to self-evaluate (questioning one’s habits; being open to innovations; being concerned with quality; being ready to adapt to new situations/conditions) and take responsibility ATA – Desire-to-excel, curious, willing-to-learn, intellectually honest; Open-minded, objective, accepting-of-criticism
Hewson & Martin 1991	“…this competence is partly an ability to reflect and question his own role as a mediator. This means that he must be aware not just of developing LCs [Language Cultures], of developing translation practices, but also of the changes brought about in his competence as a result of repeated Translation operations.” (135)
Kiraly 2004	“While the professional community needs: status, standards, continuity and innovation, employers expect: translation quality, speed, consistency and flexibility from their future employees. When it comes to learners’ needs, I have distilled three categories: ‘expertise’, ‘professionalism’, and ‘autonomy’. Expertise includes linguistic, textual, translatory, subject-matter, cultural and technical skills and knowledge. Professionalism includes things like: ethics, etiquette and comportment, and autonomy refers to being able to work as language mediation professionals without supervision.” (105)
Razmjou 2004	“There is a need for ability to adapt; therefore, it is necessary to focus on students’ self-updating and to develop their relevant mental, communicative, and planning skills.”
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“De competentie attitude kan enerzijds worden gekoppeld aan de verwerving van kennis en anderzijds aan de verwerving van vaardigheden. In het eerste geval kan de competentie attitude ook worden omschreven als alertheid/leergierigheid.” (43)
Hurtado Albir 2007	“Finally, the psycho-physiological components consist of: … confidence in one’s own capabilities, knowing the limits of one’s own capabilities, motivation, etc. …” (171)

EMT – Production competence in general ATA – Able to read a source language and write in a target language of a language pair; Able to understand nuances and registers of a language pair; Able to recognize and verify correspondence for a language pair; Able to perform language transfer Not surprisingly, this general category is the most productive in terms of literature references.
Hewson & Martin 1991	“Dissimilative competence … includes … (1) an aptitude to generate and dissimilate homologous statements and (2) an aptitude to define and recreate socio-cultural norms.” (52) “The main objective to be aimed at is Dissimilative Competence (DC), that is the ability to compare and convert linguistic and cultural systems. … In the course of their linguistic development, individuals progressively build up a specific aptitude that helps them negotiate messages with their interlocutors in accordance with their strategic aims. That aptitude we call Dissimilative Competence.” (211-212)
Kaiser-Cooke 1994	“The knowledge required for the process of translation is conventionally broken down into linguistic knowledge or competence, subject knowledge, and that elusive creature, translatorial competence. … I would suggest that translatorial expertise is in essence linguistic knowledge at a qualitatively higher and more abstract level. I do not really see the need for distinguishing between linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge, since in translation, as in all verbal communication, information about the ‘outside world’ is transmitted via language, and everything we know about an entity influences its linguistic behavior (Langacker 1986).” (137) “Translatorial expertise is the ability to compare how two languages structure the world and to adapt the conceptual pattern of one language to meet the conceptual and linguistic constraints of another.” (138)
Stolze 1994	“Übersetzungskompetenz … besteht also aus … einer Mitteilungskompetenz, einem Sprachgefühl fürs richtige Formulieren.” (387) Our translation: “Translation competence … thus consists of … communicative competence, an intuitive feel for language for correct expression.”
Wu 1994	“…learning of skill can best be carried out when attention is given mainly to translation itself.” (86-87).
Ostarhild 1994	“…to test the ability to effect accurate transfer of the written and spoken language into and from Chinese and English…” (53-54)
Cao 1996	“We have termed it Translational Strategic Competence; i.e. the integrated mental ability inherent in the task when a translator carries out an operation on a text and enacts the language and knowledge competence for communicative purposes in translation. It characterises the mental capacity for implementing the components of Translational Language Competence and Knowledge Structures in contextualised translational activities.” (333) “Translational Strategic Competence also includes psychological mechanisms. As Delisle (1988: 69) described it, it is related to the cognitive aspect of human thought processes, and in translation it also embodies the creative aspect. Translational Strategic Competence is crucial to translation. However, at the present phase of development, it is extremely difficult to establish and validate ways to test and measure this creative and cognitive aspect in translation. What can be measured is only the final product of this process and its effectiveness as reflected in the communicative functions in the translated texts.” (334)
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“…preference is given to freelance translators who offer the following: 1. translations that are accurate and of a linguistic quality that is suitable for the intended purpose…” (107-108)
Shreve 1997	“But even more important than receptive and productive competencies in the A (SL) and B (TL) languages, the translator has to understand how to remap. … One way of looking at translation ability is to look at it as a set of schemata for remapping across culturally bound form-function sets.” (130)
Ivanova 1998	Paraphrases Delisle 1992 as: “Translational competence = the ability to produce the meaning of a text without changing it in the TL & to avoid interference;” (93) Paraphrases Neubert 1992 as: “Transfer competence = transfer skills integrating subject and language knowledge with the aim of satisfying transfer needs…” (93)
Vienne 1998	“According to Roberts (1984; cited in Delisle 1992:42), translational competence consists of five components (adapted from Delisle): … Translation Competence The ability to comprehend the meaning of the source text and express it in the target text without undue changes in form and avoiding interference” (111)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“– De vertaler kan een vertaling schrijven die qua tekstsoort, stijl en register correspondeert met de brontekst, die ten minste even duidelijk en leesbaar is als de brontekst, die taalkundig correct is (qua grammatica, woordenschat, spelling, idioom) en die de algemene vorm van taalniveau van de brontekst evenaart.” (55) Our translation: “ – Translators can write a translation that corresponds to the source text in terms of text type, style, and register, that is at least just as clear and readable as the source text, that is linguistically correct (in terms of grammar, vocabulary, spelling, idioms) and that matches the general form of language level of the source text.”
Kaur & Singh 2005	“From the TAPs analysis using the inductive method, the researcher matched her analysis of the TAPs transcriptions to Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) and found three additional strategies used by the participants which were not present in Oxford’s SILL. The new findings comprise one metacognitive and two cognitive strategies. The three new strategies comprise the following: … 1. Stating one’s own beliefs on how to translate and giving the reasons supporting them (metacognitive strategy). … From this research, it was apparent that the participants had their own mindset or schema about how to go about translating. They verbalized aloud this preconception or design of the expected completed version or virtual blueprint of their translated product. While translating they reminded themselves that they should abide by these beliefs which were arrived at from past experience and translation training. … 3. Using the discrimination strategy to choose the closest equivalent term from two or three alternatives identified in the target language based on the context of the situation (contextual meaning) and the culture of the target readers (cognitive strategy). … A word may have many meanings in different situations, so, the participants had to decide on choosing the most appropriate equivalent terms in their translation for the terms given in the English-language scientific source text. For this, they had to choose from a number of alternatives identified, using the discrimination strategy. The equivalent term which is finally chosen was also based on the context of the situation or contextual meaning of the text and the culture of the target readers, so that the target readers of their translated versions would not get confused.”
Hurtado Albir 2007	“Translation knowledge sub-competence comprises essentially declarative knowledge concerning principles that govern translation (translation units, types of problems, processes, methods and procedures used) and professional considerations (types of briefs and the receiver). (170) Strategic subcompetence comprises the operative knowledge necessary to guarantee the efficiency of the translation process. It has a central role since it controls the translation process and serves to: (a) plan the process and manage the translation project (choosing the most appropriate method); (b) evaluate the process and partial results obtained according to the final purpose being sought; (c) activate the various sub-competences and compensate for their deficiencies; and (d) identify translation problems and employ procedures to solve them.” (170-171)

EMT – Knowing how to create and offer a translation appropriate to the client’s request, i.e. to the aim/skopos and to the translation situation ATA – Textual analysis skills; Able to follow specifications: audience, purpose and terminology;
Neubert 1994	“In fact, procedural competence is an integral part of the transfer competence to be practised. (416) In addition the translator has to develop a high proficiency with regard to the needs and purposes of vastly different translational situations.” (418)
Shreve 1997	“…the mark of what I am calling ‘constructed’ translation includes the ability to shift translation forms and produce different kinds of linguistic forms (translation products) called for by different circumstances.” (125)
Malmkjær 1998	“…but it seems equally clear that it involves something in addition to that, namely the ability to relate the two systems to one another appropriately: minimizing negative interference while maximizing positive interference in selecting the most appropriate translational equivalents, given ST and given the TT definition.” (8)
Neubert 2000	“…competence, viz. transfer competence is the distinguishing domain of a translator. In this profession, competence dominates over all the other competences, i.e. transfer skills integrate language, text, subject and culture knowledge with the sole aim of satisfying transfer needs.” (5-6) “Whatever they may boast about their knowledge, their amazing individual competences, their language skills and their multifarious erudition or their in-depth specialist expertise, even their profound understanding of two or more cultures, all these competences are feathers in the translator’s cap. But if this excellent equipment is not matched by the unique transfer competence to produce an adequate replica of an original they have failed. It’s not enough to know about translating, it has to be done.” (10) “Transfer competence refers to the mental equipment that constitutes the translator’s unique cognitive set or ability of matching language, textual, subject and cultural competences. … Transfer strategies, as we have seen, can never be isolated from linguistic and encyclopaedic considerations. There is an intricate network between all cognitive components, which it is the task of translation studies to unravel.” (12) “…procedural competence is an integral part of the transfer competence to be practised.” (13)
PACTE 2000	“Transfer Competence is the central competence that integrates all the others. It is the ability to complete the transfer process from the ST to the TT, i.e. to understand the ST and re-express it in the TL, taking into account the translation’s function and the characterisitics of the receptor. The sub-components include (1) comprehension competence (the ability to analyse, synthesize and activate extra-linguistic knowledge so as to capture the sense of a text), (2) the ability to “deverbalise” and to maintain the SL and the TL in separate compartments (i.e. to control interference), (3) re-expression competence (textual organisation, creativity in the TL), (4) competence in carrying out the translation project (the choice of the most adequate method).” (102)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“For a translation to be deemed ‘professionally acceptable’, it should be functionally accurate and stylistically appropriate and should faithfully render the style and meaning of the original piece of writing. It should, therefore, have the intended effect on the target audience, as the original did on the source audience.” (8) “Accuracy is a sine qua non in any translation. The need for accuracy in a translation at the level of the Diploma examination cannot be underestimated as one major error or omission giving false information could have disastrous repercussions in a real life situation. If a candidate’s script contains just one serious translation error or omission giving false information to the reader, it has not reached the minimum professional standard and the candidate cannot be awarded a Pass.” (15)
PACTE 2003	“It would seem that the transfer sub-competence is not just one sub-competence of the whole group of sub-competencies that make up translation competence. All bilinguals possess a rudimentary transfer ability… The differences between this ability and expert translation competence is due to the interaciton amongst the other sub-competencies, and in particular, to the role played by the strategic sub-competence. Therefore, it would seem that this special transfer capacity of the expert translator is the combination of all the sub-competencies, i.e. translation competence: the ability to carry out the transfer process from the soucre text to the production of the target text in function of the receptor’s needs and the purpose of the translation. This redefinition of transfer competence obliges us to modify the characteristics of the linguistic and the strategic sub-competencies.” (57)
MacKenzie 2004	“Thirdly the translator acts as text producer…” (32)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“– De vertaler kan een vertaling maken die getrouw en zeer accuraat de bedoeling, inhoud en vorm van de brontekst weergeeft. – De vertaler kan een vertaling maken die rekening houdt met de specifiek juridische en/of cultuurgebonden referenties in de brontekst zodat de vertaling ook interpreteerbaar en functioneel is in de cultuur of het systeem van de doeltaal.” (55) Our translation: “ – The translator can create a translation that takes the specific legal and/or culturally-bound references in the source text into account, so that the translation can also be interpreted and is functional in the culture or the system of the target language.”
Hansen 2007	“Our teaching aims naturally concentrate on ‘functional translation’ (Reiss and Vermeer 1984). … The functional approach is receiver-oriented. The target text is adapted to meet the function, the new communication situation, and the needs of the target text receiver. The most important parameter for the translation strategy is the ‘skopos’, the purpose of the translation.” (203) “From a business point of view, a successfully translated text means a target text which results in business being successfully conducted and in goods being delivered without obstacles; it means that contracts are drawn up, agreements are made, and that the consumer can use products described in manuals without problems. (203) “Translational competence consists of: 1. implicit translational competence, which is the ability to extract the relevant information from the source text bearing in mind the commissioner’s intention, and to produce the target text in such a way that the intended function is fulfilled.” (205) “Pragmatic competence … entails the ability to produce coherent texts in accordance with the purpose of the message, the needs of the receiver, and the text type conventions…” (206)
Angelelli 2009	“…T[ranslation] shows a masterful ability to address the intended TL audience and achieve the translation’s intended purpose in the TL. Word choice is skillful and apt. Cultural references, discourse, and register are completely appropriate for the TL domain, text-type, and readership.” (40)

EMT – Knowing how to define stages and strategies for the translation of a document ATA – Textual analysis skills; Personal time management skills; Able to perform language transfer
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“Project management … coordination, leadership, administration” (112)
Malmkjær 1998	“They define the TT…” (7)
PACTE 2000	“…(4) competence in carrying out the translation project (the choice of the most adequate method).” (102)
MacKenzie 2004	“…the professional translator specifies what is required by analyzing the translation situation (asking the relevant questions)…” (32)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A competent translator must be able to use translation strategies while translating from the source language to the target language.”
Kelly 2005	“Strategic competence. Organizational and planning skills. Problem identification and problem-solving. Monitoring, self-assessment and revision.” (33)
Hansen 2007	“Translational competence consists of: … 2. explicit translational competence, comprising explicit knowledge of a) translation methods (for instance, literal translation and idiomatic translation, and the ability to choose the appropriate type) b) translation strategies (for example the strategies of inferencing and reduction)” (205-206)
Hurtado Albir 2007	“(a) plan the process and manage the translation project (choosing the most appropriate method); (b) evaluate the process and partial results obtained according to the final purpose being sought;” (170-171)

EMT – Knowing how to define and evaluate translation problems and find appropriate solutions ATA – Able to perform language transfer; Able to use common sense; Able to think analytically This EMT category is not directly reflected in the ATA categories, where practicing professionals did not explicitly identify handling translation problems as a separate skill.
Bell 1991	“Strategic competence: the mastery of communication strategies which may be used to improve communication or to compensate for breakdowns (caused by limiting factors in actual communication or to insufficient competence in one or more of the other components of communicative competence).” (41)
Stolze 1994	“…und Erfahrungen über methodische Ansatzpunkte und Lösungsstrategien …” (387) Our translation: “… and experience with methodological approaches and solution strategies …” (387)
Wußler 1997	“Problemlösungsfähigkeit” (quoting Arnold 1996, 62) Our translation: “Problem-solving ability”
MacKenzie 1998	“Moreover, as no human being can possibly have a mastery of all the styles and registers of a language, even their own mother tongue, far less have expert knowledge of all the subjects that may be encountered in the everyday work of a translator, would-be professional translators have to learn the strategies for solving the problems that arise from these facts.” (17)
PACTE 2000	“Strategic Competence includes all the individual procedures, conscious and unconscious, verbal and non-verbal, used to solve the problems found during the translation process. The problem-solving process can be described as a series of acts or recursive, complex acts that lead from an initial state to an objective. There are several stages in this process, the first of which is recognising there is a problem (Sternberg 1996). Examples of strategies are: distinguishing between main and secondary ideas, establishing conceptual relationships, searching for information, paraphrasing, back translating, translating out loud, establishing an order for documentation, etc.” (102)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…an awareness of translation problems and possible solutions, such as translators’ notes, to specific problems relating to proper names, abbreviations and weights and measures etc;” (13)
PACTE 2003	“It is becoming increasingly clear that the strategic sub-competence plays a crucial role in translation competence since it is used to: plan the translation project; activate, monitor and compensate for shortcomings in other translation sub-competencies; detect translation problems; apply translation strategies; monitor and evaluate both the translation process and the partial results obtained in relation to the intended target text, etc.” (57) “Strategic sub-competence. Procedural knowledge to guarantee the efficiency of the translation process and solve the problems encountered. This is an essential sub-competence that affects all the others and causes inter-relations amongst them because it controls the translation process. Its functions are: (1) to plan the process and carry out the translation project (choice of the most adequate method); (2) to evaluate the process and the partial results obtained in relation to the final purpose; (3) to activate the different sub-competencies and to compensate for deficiencies in them; (4) to identify translation problems and apply procedures to solve them.” (59)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“Finding one’s own solutions to the problems identified and carrying them out (cognitive strategy)” … “Problem identification comes under the metacognitive strategy, but here, the participants moved one step forward. They used cognitive strategies to solve their problem. All five participants, using the TAP technique, found that some sentences in the English language scientific texts were very long and confusing, and found such complex sentences very difficult to translate into the Malay language, which has a different pattern of grammar. If they were to maintain the complex sentences in the Malay translation, the target readers might become confused. In an effort to overcome this problem, they found a solution. They decided to divide the complex sentences into two shorter sentences for easier analysis and comprehension. In this way, the translation process became more manageable and simpler. The meaning was communicated much more easily and accurately and the participants were satisfied with their completed translated version in the Malay language.”
Kelly 2005	“Strategic competence. Organizational and planning skills. Problem identification and problem-solving. Monitoring, self-assessment and revision.” (33)
Hansen 2007	“…strategies for recognising and solving translation problems, such as assessment strategies for the evaluation of target texts…” (206)
Hurtado Albir 2007	“…identify translation problems and employ procedures to solve them.” (171)
Angelelli 2009	“T[ranslation] demonstrates able and creative solutions to translation problems.” (41)

EMT – Knowing how to justify one’s translation choices and decisions ATA – Translation theory knowledge; Translation methods knowledge

PACTE 2003

“Knowledge about translation sub-competence. Predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and explicit, about what translation is and aspects of the profession. It includes: (1) knowledge about how translation functions: types of translation units, processes required, methods and procedures used (strategies and techniques) and types of problems; (2) knowledge related to professional translation practice: knowledge of the work market (different types of briefs, clients and audiences, etc.” (59)

EMT – Mastering the appropriate metalanguage (to talk about one’s work, strategies and decisions)

ATA – Translation theory knowledge; Translation methods knowledge

EMT – Knowing how to proofread and revise a translation (mastering techniques and strategies for proofreading and revision) ATA – Editing and proofreading skills; Thorough, meticulous, attentive-to-detail
Samuelsson-Brown 1996	“Proof-reading” (112)
Malmkjær 1998	“The exact nature of Revision will depend on what has gone before, but its outcome is a final version of the text.” (8)
MacKenzie 2004	“…and finally as the evaluator of his or her own text or those of other translators.” (32) “Deciding how much and what kind of revision is required is a necessary part of this phase.” (34)
Commissie Kwaliteitseisen Tolken en Vertalers 2005	“– De vertaler kan een vertaling die hij in een eerdere versie heeft gemaakt oordeelkundig bijstellen en de nodige verbeteringen aanbrengen die de duidelijkheid of de leesbaarheid bevorderen of beter tegemoetkomen aan de conventies van de tekstsoort of de functionering in de context van de doeltaal.” (55) “– The translator can judiciously revise a translation that he created in an earlier version and apply the necessary corrections that improve clarity or readability or better accommodate the conventions of the text type or the function in the context of the target language.”

EMT – Knowing how to establish and monitor quality standards ATA - Translation standards knowledge
MacKenzie 2004	“Apart from the basic knowledge of texts and text norms in the respective cultures, quality management skills are needed.” (34)

7. Categories not in the EMT

a. Theory

ATA – Knowledge of translation theory Although knowledge of theory is implicit in the EMT framework, it is not explicitly stated, since the EMT model focuses on skills.
Kaiser-Cooke 1994	“Theoretical knowledge (in our case, ‘knowing’ the language) is a necessary basis for experience (i.e. practical knowledge) if a sufficient degree of expertise is to be achieved.” (138)
Wu 1994	“We may well say that theory can at least serve as a guide to translation practice. …translation theory should be put in its proper perspective with its importance neither underestimated nor overestimated.” (91)
Chesterman 1997	“Remember the old joke about the centipede that was told to watch its feet and never managed to walk again? Many practising translators may feel the same about the applicability of translation theory.” (150)
Institute of Linguists 2003	“…an awareness of translation theory: candidates are encouraged to read about translation (see Suggested Reading).” (13) “…candidates must develop an awareness of theory in the context of the material that is to be translated and an understanding of how this theory should be applied. Aspects of translation theory which candidates may find helpful in their preparation for the Diploma could include: a. an awareness and understanding of the “dynamics of translating”, i.e. a consideration of source text and author, expected readership and the cultural setting of the source and target languages; b. an awareness of text typology and types of translation and, in particular, of the differences and uses of semantic as opposed to communicative translation; c. aspects and implications of register and style; d. the search for translation equivalencies and other translation procedures such as transfer and naturalisation; e. some experience in handling concepts and terminology in both languages of the examination; f. an awareness of translation problems and possible solutions, such as translators’ notes, to specific problems relating to proper names, abbreviations and weights and measures etc; g. an awareness of translation theory: candidates are encouraged to read about translation (see Suggested Reading).” (13)
MacKenzie 2004	“Professionals need to have a background in the history, theory and methodology of the subject in order to give them insight into their role and thus to strengthen their self-image as professionals.” (33)
Kaur & Singh 2005	“A translator must be familiar with the basic principles of translation theory and practice.”
Katan 2009	“‘T/I Theory’ is seen as essential by a mere 74 out of the 459 T/Is who replied.” (202)

b. Other ATA categories

· Persevering, reliable, trustworthy, sense-of-integrity

· Education and training (i.e., undergraduate or graduate degree in subject-matter discipline or in translation)

· Non-degree education and training (i.e., conferences, workshops and seminars; in-house training; institution-based certificate program in translation; mentorship, internships or apprenticeships)

· Membership in a professional society or association

· Certification by a professional society or association

---

[1] We would question whether the goal of translation competence should actually be set so low as merely that of a bilingual native speaker.