1	20^th Century European Linguistics 20^th Century Linguistics, part 1
2	Structuralism The school of thought that has been labeled Structuralism is based on the belief that cultural objects such as literature, art, architecture, etc. cannot be understood in isolation—they must be studied within the context of the larger structures to which they contribute and within which they developed. In terms of text, it is viewed as a function of a system and not so much as an individual creation. The emphasis is placed not on the author as the origin of the text or of meaning, but on the structures that texts inhabit and how they constrict the culture within which we live.
3	Properties of Structuralism “The mind is seen as an information processing machine that fits sense data into a functional structure that serves a purpose and has a meaning. We say that in so doing, the mind interprets the data” (Seuren 1998:141). Reductionism: the mind is a physical object—the mind must be constrained to physical matter (the brain)
4	European Structuralism Unaffected by behaviorism Introspective (rationalist) and intuitive analyses coupled with a realist interpretation in terms of psychological structures and processes. Language is an autonomous structure in the mind or brain of the speaker (this is a common link to American Structuralism).
5	American Structuralism Highly influenced by behaviorism Language is an autonomous structure in the mind or brain of the speaker (this is a common link to European Structuralism).
6	Early European Structuralism Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
7	Jan Baudouin de Courtenay Born in Poland The major founder of modern phonology Taught that the “phoneme is the psychological principle behind the realization of speech sounds” (Seuren 1998:145).
8	Ferdinand de Saussure Born in Geneva, Switzerland Wrote The Cours, which introduced linguistics as a formal discipline Etc.
9	The Prague School Anton Marty (1847-1914) Vilém Mathesius (1882-1945) Nikolai Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) Roman Jakobson (1896-1982)
10	Anton Marty Semantics is psychological, not logical, therefore logic should not come into play in the study of meaning. “The grammatical form of a sentence expresses not only its abstract propositional meaning but also its less abstract linguistic meaning or ‘inner form’, which corresponds more closely to surface structure and intonation and is determined by the way the propositional meaning is to be integrated into running discourse” (Seuren 1998:157-8).
11	Vilém Mathesius Theme & Rheme Theme = topic; subject Rheme = comment; predicate Mathesius ‘borrowed’ theme & rheme from C.S. Peirce (without giving him credit).
12	Nikolai Sergeyevich Trubetzkoy Heavily influenced by de Courtenay’s concept of the phoneme and phonology. Worked with Jakobsen to develop the idea of markedness. Died shortly after the Nazis ransacked his home.
13	Roman Osipovich Jakobson Heavily influenced by de Courtenay’s concept of the phoneme and phonology. Binary distinctive features are underlying the phonemic system of all languages. Markedness (w/ Trubetskoy) Historical change as a system
14	"Jakobsen dealt with grammatical categories" Jakobsen dealt with grammatical categories, but emphasized the need to retain meaning (semantics) in the system. This was a very anti-Formalist approach to language (i.e. anti-Chomskyan), which eventually turned the Formalists against him. In fact at an LSA meeting after WWII, Robert Hall (Cornell) passed around a $20 bill and had everyone sign it who agreed to blackball Jakobsen.
15	The Copenhagen School Louis Hjelmslev (1899-1965)
16	Louis Hjelmslev Born in Copenhagen, Denmark Glossematics (heavy Saussurian influence) There is a content plane (thought) and an expression plane (ideas/sounds). Form versus substance: “The abstract units, defined by their algebraic combinatory properties, are the form, whereas any conventionally established phonetic (or semantic) realization is the substance” (Seuren 1998:163).
17	"Linguistic description should proceed from..." Linguistic description should proceed from the text (general meaning) down to the words/sounds, not vice versa. Algorithmic view of language: generating an infinite # of sentence from a finite # of constituents. Hjelmslev’s ideas about an algorithmic mechanism for generating language, though very rough, precludes Generativism in America.
18	The London School Henry Sweet (1845-1912) Daniel Jones (1881-1967) John Rupert Firth (1890-1960) Sir Alan Gardiner (1879-1963)
19	Henry Sweet Born in London Developed a broad and narrow phonetic alphabet, which was later used by the International Phonetic Association (IPA).
20	Daniel Jones Born in London Established the first phonetics lab in Britain. Did a large amount of phonology research in Asian and African languages, and his work has a wide influence in phonology.
21	John Rupert Firth Did a lot of work with prosodic features in phonetics and phonology. “It is not only the substitution of segmental features like nasality or voice that can make a semantic difference but also the substitution of prosodic features of length, tone and stress” (Sueren 1998:169). Promotes speech act theory
22	Sir Alan Gardiner Wrote Egyptian Grammar (still a standard reference book) The Theory of Speech and Language speech acts are the primary data in linguistics a language system exists in the conscious the linguistic sign = speaker, listener, utterance, and meaning of the utterance